The quest for the perfect curl has been a driving force throughout history, leading to the development of the permanent wave, a transformative hair treatment that has evolved significantly over the decades. From ancient techniques to modern innovations, the permanent wave has empowered individuals to embrace different hairstyles and elevate their personal style.
The earliest evidence of hair perming dates back to ancient Egypt around 1500 BC, showcasing humanity's long-standing fascination with altering hair texture. In 330 BC, Alexander the Great introduced hair curling techniques to Greece, further spreading the practice. While hair curling fell out of fashion during the Middle Ages, it regained popularity during the Enlightenment, setting the stage for further innovation.
In 1872, Marcel Grateau, a French hair stylist, devised a practical thermal method for creating long-lasting waves. He invented specially manufactured tongs with a circular cross-section on one arm and a concave one on the other, allowing them to fit together when closed. These tongs were heated over a gas or alcohol flame, and the correct temperature was achieved by testing them on newspaper. The tongs were applied to locks of hair, creating a continuous flat wave through plastic flow of the hair. Although effective, the high temperatures used in Marcel waving tended to degrade the hair.
The early 20th century witnessed significant advancements in permanent wave technology. In 1905, Karl Nessler, a German hairdresser also known as Charles Nestle, revolutionized the industry with his invention: the precursor to the modern-day perm. Nessler's system combined a chemical process with a thermal process. His first permanent wave machine used gas to heat hair that had been wrapped around chemically treated pads, using an alkali chemical combined with heated brass rollers.
Nessler's invention was a response to the changing fashions of the time. In the Western world, long hair had been standard for women until the 1920s, when flappers adopted short "bob" haircuts as a form of rebellion against tradition. As women increasingly entered the workforce during World War I, shorter, more manageable hairstyles became practical.
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Nessler's early permanent wave machines were cumbersome and resembled giant science experiments. His process employed about 12 two-pound brass rollers and could take up to six hours to complete. The hair was wrapped in a spiral around rods connected to a machine with an electric heating device, and sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) was applied. The hair was then heated to 212 °F (100 °C) or more for an extended period, with a complex system of weights suspended from an overhead chandelier to keep the hot rollers from touching the scalp.
Despite the challenges, Nessler's invention gained popularity. He received a patent for his system in 1909 and opened his first salon in New York City in 1915. His permanent wave became a hit with American women, and soon his system became a sensation in the hairdressing world.
Nessler's success attracted competitors, leading to further innovation in permanent wave technology. Eugene Suter, a Swiss immigrant, established a fashionable salon in London and recognized the potential of electrical permanent waving, particularly with shorter hairstyles. He collaborated with Isidoro Calvete, a Spanish immigrant who designed electrical equipment, to develop a practical heater consisting of two windings inserted into an aluminum tube. This design ensured that thicker hair near the root received more heat than thinner hair at the end.
The Eugene Company produced a range of products, including color rinses, shampoos, setting lotions, and steaming sachets, and published its own magazine, The Eugène Waver, to promote its products and provide advice to hairdressers. Eugene also challenged Nessler in the United States market, even suing him for patent infringement and winning the case.
Further advancements included the development of point-winding, allegedly invented in 1924 by a Czech hairdresser named Josef Mayer, and croquignole heaters designed by Calvete to fit over the windings. These innovations aimed to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the permanent wave process.
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Until about 1930, progress in permanent waving was largely empirical, with hairdressers experimenting with different methods and reagents. However, Calvete recognized the need for a deeper understanding of the chemistry of hair and engaged a chemist named Bari-Woollss to conduct research.
Bari-Woollss highlighted the importance of redox reduction, the addition of hydrogen to break the bonds of keratin in the hair, allowing waving to take place more easily. This led to the addition of sulfites, bisulfites, or metabisulfites to reagents, which evolved sulfur dioxide, a reducing agent, upon heating.
A significant breakthrough occurred in 1931 when Ralph L. Evans and Everett G. McDonough introduced a heatless system for permanent waving at the Midwest Beauty Show in Chicago. In 1938, Arnold F. Willatt invented the cold wave, the precursor to the modern perm. This revolutionary method used no machines and no heat. The hair was wrapped on rods, and a reduction lotion containing ammonium thioglycolate was applied. This chemical breaks open the disulfide linkages between the polypeptide bonds in the keratin, the protein structure in the hair. An oxidation lotion-hydrogen peroxide-was then applied to close the disulfide bridges again, reforming the hair to the shape of the rod.
J.C. Le Moyne perfected the cold perm method in the 1930s, using a thiosulfate solution instead of an alkaline one. In the 1950s, ammonium thioglycolate became the preferred chemical for perms.
The 1970s saw the introduction of acid perms, which use glyceryl monothioglycolate instead of ammonia. Acid perms are slower but gentler to the hair. Today, perms often use sodium thioglycolate instead of ammonium thioglycolate, at a pH of 8 to 9.5.
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Modern perming techniques offer a variety of options to create different types of curls, from loose waves to tight ringlets. Digital perms, introduced in the 21st century, use microprocessors to control the curl size and shape.
Marjorie Joyner, an African American hairdresser, made a significant contribution to the development of the perm for ethnic hair. In 1928, she patented a dome-shaped helmet that used an electrical current to heat hair clamped in sections. Joyner developed her machine to help African American women straighten their tightly curled hair, although it also proved effective for adding curl to Caucasian women's hair.
Garrett Morgan is also credited with contributing to the development of the perm for ethnic hair, creating a cream in 1913 through his Hair Refining Company.
Permanent waves had a profound social impact, transforming women's hair care into a social event. Beauty shops began to open, offering haircuts, styling, and permanent waves, creating spaces for women to gather and socialize.
The permanent wave also reflected changing social norms and the growing desire for self-expression. As women gained more independence, they sought hairstyles that reflected their modern lifestyles.
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